In this unit, we will look at the participation of citizens in their governments. We are all born into political culture, and our political socialization begins as young as age 3, when we first learn our attitudes toward police officers. Think back on your childhood. Did you hear your mom or dad say, "If you ever get lost, find a police officer, and they will bring you home", or did you hear "Oh no! Slow down! It's the cops!"? One gives you a good feeling toward police, and authority in general, while the other instills fear.
Our environment continues to shape our political opinions as we grow, and when we become eligible to vote, we also decide whether to join parties or interest groups or even whether or not to participate in political marches or other forms of protest. Some of us may grow up in a political void and feel alienated, while others try to use the government to promote racist and hate-filled agendas; when their voices are rejected, or even "silenced", they feel disenfranchised and resort to violence. In a democracy, hearing everyone's voice is the goal, even if we do not like what our fellow citizens are saying.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 25 hours.
As you read this article, consider this question: what have the defining characteristics of American political culture been, as a whole? As this article mentions, the political culture of other countries may be characterized by different core values. For example, the political culture of Asian countries is often characterized by an emphasis on the good of the group over the good of the individual. Countries in Northern Europe tend to have political cultures characterized by secular values and self-expression, while the political culture of African countries often centers around traditional and community values.
Read the Preamble and Section 6.1. As these sections describe, political culture is "a nation's personality" or "the habits of the heart". Political culture involves a country's shared ideologies, beliefs, norms, customs, traditions, and heroes. A defined political culture can help bind citizens to one another, facilitating consensus-building.
People are not born as Democrats or Republicans; instead, political knowledge, beliefs, and values are learned over the course of one's life. As this section describes, political socialization is "the process by which people learn their roles as citizens and develop an understanding of government and politics". Political learning takes place through "agents" of political socialization. The most commonly recognized agents of political socialization include the family, school, peer groups, and the media. Which of these agents of socialization have been most influential in the development of your political beliefs?
As television and internet usage grows, so does their potential to influence citizens' political knowledge. While media has typically been included as an agent of political socialization, do you agree with this section when it claims that this influence is growing? Why do some people believe that it is not good for young people to learn about politics solely through the media?
Public opinion is the expression of political beliefs or values, and it is measured through political polls. In a democracy, we typically accept that the will of the people should direct the actions of government, and so public opinion polls have become a critical part of the political process in the U.S. and other democracies. In the Unit 1 article on political representation, you were asked to consider the different perspectives on representation, and so you should think about those different perspectives as you read about public opinion. Should political leaders try to copy public opinion precisely? Or, should political leaders use their best judgment to make decisions, even if that means going against public opinion? As explained towards the end of the article, many people are uninformed about politics. Does that mean that political leaders should still take public opinion into account when making decisions?
Read this section, which explains the ways in which the media influences government and politics. Citizens absorb political information through television, radio, and internet on a daily basis, which can impact their thinking about politics. Unlike the U.S., some countries do not enjoy a free media; instead, the government controls what messages citizens receive from the media. A censored or government-controlled media can significantly influence the political process.
As described in the last section, the "media" is considered an important agent of political socialization, as it can teach people certain political beliefs or values. Besides the socializing role, the media also serves as a "watchdog", drawing attention to government corruption or mistakes, which promotes government transparency and accountability. The media can also serve an agenda-setting role. By covering some news stories and not others, the media has the power to shape what people will think or talk about. Similarly, by "framing" a story from a particular perspective, the media often influences both public opinion and influence government leaders.
Individuals can influence government and create change, but coming together in groups offers even greater opportunities. Interest groups are one important form of group participation in politics. After you complete this article, you should be familiar with the following topics: economic interest groups, societal interest groups, ideological interest groups, and public interest groups. Pay particularly close attention to the section on "interest groups and elections", as this explores the power of interest groups to directly affect the political process.
Most people agree that interest groups significantly influence the government. However, some believe that interest groups are beneficial to democracy, while others think interest groups are harmful. The views of the former typically stem from the theory of "pluralism", which is described in this article. We will read about the potential for interest groups to be harmful in the next article.
According to this article, "an increasing number of Americans believe that government is run to serve a few large interests rather than for the benefit of all". Many view interest groups with skepticism, believing that the "special interests" often have too much influence in the policy process. What do you think? Do you think that interest groups are beneficial, as pluralism contends, or do you think that the "special interests" have too much power?
Pay close attention to the image that depicts the iron triangle as you read this article. The United States is not the only country in which interest groups have a significant influence over policymaking. For example, Japan is said to have an "iron triangle" composed of interest groups, leaders in the majority political party, and senior bureaucrats. Do you think that "iron triangles" simply represent an effective and necessary way to "get things done", or are they undemocratic?
Read this entire chapter. Though most political scholars agree that today's major political parties do not play the central role that they did in the past, they still provide important functions. While reading the chapter, think about the influence and relevance of political parties in today's political landscape. Pay close attention to the specific definition of “political parties” as outlined in this reading.
Like interest groups, political parties represent another opportunity for citizens to come together in a group in order to influence politics. These are some of the most important roles of political parties:
Political parties exist both in democracies and non-democracies. How do you think these roles change when political parties are operating in a non-democratic society?
As this article explains, there are three types of party systems: single or dominant party systems, two-party systems, and multi-party systems. One party or dominant party systems tend to be found in authoritarian or non-democratic countries, since choice is a critical element of a truly democratic society. As we will read more about in the next section, the type of electoral system used by a country can influence whether it has a two-party or multi-party system.
The U.S. is one of the few countries in the world that has a two-party system. This article explains why the U.S. has a two-party system, and explores the advantages and disadvantages of a two-party system.
Most democratic countries have a multi-party system. This article asks you to consider what the political system would be like in the U.S. if it, too, had a multi-party system. Consider the questions the author asks towards the end of the article. Would a true multiparty system more accurately reflect the values of American citizens?
Read this article for a brief overview of the role of political parties, interest groups, and NGOs (non-governmental organizations).
Read each of the pages under the "Campaigns and Elections" header. Pay close attention to the "Winning an Election: Majority, Plurality, and Proportional Representation" subsection in the "Elections" page, as this will help explain why the U.S. has a two-party system.
Read pages 13–19 and 75–88. Compare and contrast the turnout rates for different countries and consider the variables (social, economic, and political) which contribute to a country's propensity for its citizens to exercise (or not exercise) their right to vote.
Voting is a critical form of citizen participation in politics. However, voting happens only periodically, so how do citizens participate in politics the rest of the time? As you’ve already read, citizens can join an interest group or participate in a political party. This article will describe even more opportunities for citizens to participate in politics, apart from voting. Citizens can participate in civil society, attend a rally or protest, donate time or money to candidates, discuss political issues with friends or family, or connect with like-minded citizens on social media. Do you participate in politics? If so, what is your preferred method of participation? Which types of participation do you think are most effective at influencing change?
Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.