This unit outlines the classical virtues and ideals of leadership. What makes a true leader? What makes the ideals they espouse appealing? Consider how the virtues discussed might look today, and whether we still value them as qualities good leaders possess.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.
We begin our examination of leadership ideals by delving into classical definitions of the concept of virtue. This will give us the background we need to discuss how our understanding of virtue influences how we strive to live within our community.
Plato's Republic, which the Greek philosopher wrote around 380 BCE, provides the basis for much of our modern discussion about leadership ideals. It also addresses how people should live and work, morally and ethically, within a community. Plato originally wrote the Republic as a series of conversations he had with his mentor Socrates, also a great Greek philosopher and orator, and a group of interlocutors or debaters in the Greek city of Athens. The conversations concerned various ethical questions and dilemmas.
Plato outlines how virtue is present when individuals work in harmony within their community or city-state. He describes four fundamental or cardinal virtues: justice, prudence, temperance, and courage. In the classical sense, a virtue is a trait a moral or good person possesses, which leads to moral excellence in life. In Unit 3, we will explore how these virtues inform our moral actions, decisions, and beliefs about ethical leadership.
As you read this article, think about the nature of the state or government. How does the virtuous behavior of the citizens impact how the state functions? How do Plato's four cardinal virtues lay the foundation for other virtues?
Read this article, which provides a historical context for how future schools of thought built on Plato's cardinal virtues. What makes these virtues so timeless? How are they still relevant after 2,000 years?
Many, including Plato and his student Aristotle, consider justice to be the most important and far-reaching virtue. This cardinal virtue not only applies to how leaders should treat the people in their communities, but how people should expect to be treated.
Here, we explore why Plato and Aristotle believed justice provides a foundation for moral action. As you review, try to identify the areas where Plato and Aristotle agree and disagree. Why did they believe justice must prevail before the citizens of a state or country can flourish? Do you agree? What kind of person is a just person? What kinds of moral decisions do they make on a day-to-day basis?
Watch this video to review Plato's cardinal virtues and hear a discussion of how justice finds its way into modern discussions of virtue ethics, such as lying, stealing, murder, and cheating. The language of virtue has changed, but the concerns of the classical approach are still with us.
Read this article for background on why Plato and Aristotle considered justice to be the "mother" of the virtues. Justice relates to fairness or equality as a guiding principle for your actions and decisions. It also moderates selfishness and selflessness – a balance or harmony society prefers for personal actions. The classical conception argues that justice in the individual results in justice for the state.
While justice, Plato's first cardinal virtue, offers a foundation for moral action, we consider practical wisdom (prudence) the virtue of the intellect. The virtue of practical wisdom describes someone's ability to apply reason and practical sense to situations, issues, and responsibilities, with an eye toward the moral implications.
Read this article, which argues that Plato's concept of practical wisdom includes two components. Virtuous leaders not only use their practical wisdom to think knowledgeably – incorporating memoria and docilitas, or open-mindedness. They can also make good decisions with open eyes and clear-sighted vision, quickly, with providentiality or foresight.
Think about how competitive athletes train and make decisions in the sports arena. Superior athletes not only have excellent physical and technical abilities, but they can also make quick tactical decisions with foresight. They predict what is going to happen in the next few moments. In the same way, Plato's virtuous leaders have great knowledge and cognitive ability and can think with clear-sighted vision, in a way that is providential, with foresight.
As you read, think about how you would respond to these questions.
To many, courage, Plato's third cardinal virtue, is the lynchpin of the virtues because it describes a person's ability to act on their virtuous commitments – despite negative personal costs that could result – for the sake of the well-being of others. We often use courage synonymously with bravery or valor. It describes a leader's willingness to act justly, rightly, or morally, even though their actions may be unpopular, discouraged, or bring personal loss or societal shame.
Courage also describes a physical and moral ability in the classical understanding. It also refers to the physical ability to confront pain, uncertainty, trouble, and even death as a choice. Why do you think leaders who have social justice concerns and wisdom (prudence) need courage? What is it about courage that helps societies and individuals carry out moral or virtuous action?
Read this article, which surveys the classical link and historical understanding of courage. In the section on modernity, pay particular attention to how courageous people show fortitude in the midst of trials. The awards section at the bottom of the article lists various commendations organizations present to recipients who have demonstrated great courage despite the obstacles they faced.
Moderation, Plato's fourth cardinal virtue, describes the ability to regulate your personal affections, emotions, and dispositions, to keep the other virtues in harmony. Many believe moderation is the voluntary choice virtuous leaders make to favor internal self-control and avoid excessiveness. Traits of moderation include non-violence, humility, and modesty, or self-restraint against excessive retaliation, violence, pride, and impropriety.
For example, an off-balance individual may act violently in the name of justice and fail to show the clarity of wisdom or prudence. Similarly, a political leader may violate the virtue of justice to negatively affect the wellbeing of another person or the state. Moderation helps guide this balance.
Read this article, which offers more explanation and examples of what Plato meant about acting or leading with moderation.
Plato's most influential student, Aristotle, lived in Greece from 384 to 322 BCE. Aristotle expanded on Plato's thoughts about justice, wisdom (prudence), temperance, and courage, especially when he described how to practice good leadership. Both Plato and Aristotle believed the virtues guide strong ethical leaders.
For Aristotle, excellent leaders have phronesis, which means they can expertly apply their knowledge, skill, and wisdom (prudence) to various situations. Ethical leaders are experts in explaining the purpose of living and flourishing. They can locate the correct amount (or golden mean) of moral virtue in any given situation. They also encourage others to be excellent leaders.
According to Aristotle, excellent leaders:
Read this article, which explores Aristotle's virtue ethics in more detail. As you read, consider how Aristotle builds on Plato's Four Cardinal Virtues.
How should leaders balance general concerns of justice with the specific concerns of business? This article recommends leaders balance or harmonize a unity of virtues with commonly-held values and beliefs that live through the individual and organization. Are there any limits to the public and private application of fairness and justice? How should leaders balance these concerns? How can the four categories of phronesis listed above help balance what leaders should and should not do?
Phronesis refers to the virtue of wisdom, as applied to practical problems and issues. Leaders who have phronesis rely heavily on Plato's principle of practical wisdom, one of the four cardinal virtues. Aristotle added that virtuous leaders who have phronesis offer a form of moral intelligence for applying ethical decision-making to practical issues. They encourage others to build character, make ethical decisions, and develop their own excellent leadership skills.
This article describes phronesis as "the practice of wisdom people use in particular situations when they do not and cannot know what to do…Leadership calls for them to act at the moment, not just on what they know, but in a mood of courage, perseverance, discernment, and thoughtfulness, as well as wisdom. To decide 'in the moment' is to draw on who one is in every facet of one's being". The authors describe a leader who is courageous, wise, and able to work without a roadmap, while "rooted in the values respected by the community".
A virtuous leader must also possess skill (techne), which, in the classical sense, describes how well they carry out particular actions with technical skill or craft.
Read this article, which gives a background and discussion on techne in the field of rhetoric and communication. Do you think leaders who set policies to train people in diligence, justice, and empathy, can create laws and policies to train citizens to be lazy and selfish? How is the way individuals act or perform as important as the action or task itself? In what ways do our morals inform our choices and actions?
For Aristotle, the city-state regime involves more than just its leader and administration. In addition to performing administrative duties and issuing rules, the regime represents culture: a collection of customs, manners, beliefs, moral ideas, and norms. Aristotle argues that culture gives people their identity. In Unit 2, we will consider the role of culture more specifically. First, we need to recognize Aristotle was thinking about culture too.
Watch this lecture for a discussion of what Aristotle believes about the qualities of a virtuous statesman (megalopsychos). Pay particular attention to the role of regime and the cultural component of regime.
Read this opinion piece, which examines Aristotle's beliefs about phronesis, virtuous leadership, and the recent political situation involving European leadership. Pay attention to the discussion of culture, which will set the stage for the next unit.