Let's begin our study of the world's regions in Europe. While humans did not originate in Europe, and we do not consider it the "cradle of civilization", this region has profoundly affected the world's other regions, primarily due to colonization. Europe's geography has been an essential component of its economic history. Its geography influenced the movement of its people, and its natural resources facilitated its economic development during the Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions.
However, Europe's socioeconomic success has contributed to the challenges it now faces. The influx of immigrants from places it once colonized has led to a rise in nationalism. Globalization has also contributed to forces that divide rather than unify many Europeans. In this unit, we also investigate themes we introduced in Unit 1 as part of the European context.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.
Let's begin our examination of Europe by studying a political map.
Study this map of Europe so you are familiar with the locations of the countries that comprise this region. Pay attention to the major oceans, seas, and waterways that surround Europe.
As a world region, Europe is relatively small. Its physical geography ranges from places below sea level, such as the Zuider Zee of the Netherlands in the Northern Lowlands, to Mont Blanc in the High Alps, which straddles the border of France and Italy.
Figure 2.1 shows Europe's four main landforms, including the Northern Lowlands and the Alps. The Northern Lowlands support much of Europe's agricultural activity. The Alpine region has served as a barrier to movement and as a contributor to the more temperate type C climate of the Mediterranean region. The ocean, particularly the Gulf Stream, makes these temperate regions of Europe possible.
The climate becomes less temperate as you travel inland, away from the coastlines. For example, winters in Warsaw, Poland, are much colder than in Amsterdam in the Netherlands, although both cities are about 52° N. The North Sea mitigates the effects of Amsterdam's northern location. Warsaw's interior location does not afford this advantage.
Europe has long depended on its rivers, such as the Rhine and Danube, as trade routes. The connections European cities have to these waterways have been integral to prosperity within this region. Europeans have also benefited from the natural resources their physical geography provides. However, retrieving and using these resources has imposed costly and irreparable damage to the environment. For example, burning fossil fuels in Europe's urban centers has caused air pollution and acid rain that has affected the health of the population, damaged buildings, and jeopardized its forests, such as the Black Forest in southwest Germany.
Read this text to learn more about Europe's climate, geographic features, and their interaction with the humans living there.
Make sure you can answer these questions.
Watch these two videos for more insight.
We can certainly devote an entire course to the history of European culture (and to that of every region we study in this course). But let's take a brief look at some general themes from a geographical perspective.
Much of Europe is characterized by access to fresh water, good soils, various minerals, forests, temperate climate, flat terrain, rivers, and coastlines. In addition to the Greek and Roman Empires, the Vikings recognized the value of Europe's physical geography and natural resources. They connected Europe to the outside world through infrastructure and navigation. This led to an Agrarian Revolution in Europe, where agricultural production increased dramatically, especially in Britain. Europe's rivers, minerals, forests, and other resources fueled the Industrial Revolution, which we explore in the next section.
Europe's political landscape changed dramatically over a relatively short period of time: shifting from empires and kingdoms to countries and economic alliances. Europe's colonial influence adapted accordingly.
Read this text to learn how Europe has changed since the days of the Greeks and Romans.
Colonialism refers to the policy or practice of acquiring full or partial political control over another country. This control includes exploiting the country economically and occupying it with settlers from the colonizing country. Geography facilitated European colonization across the world. Although many European countries are relatively small, they were among the major colonial powers because they had ocean access.
Smaller countries with less land area and fewer natural resources often looked for new territories to expand. For example, Belgium, England, France, Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain had disproportionate control over much of the world from the 1400s until World War II.
See the map in Figure 2.2 to visualize how the Europeans divided the continent of Africa among themselves. Note that Belgium exploited the Belgian Congo for its rubber. The Belgian Congo was more than 75 times larger than the country of Belgium in Europe. Note that the Belgian Congo became the Republic of the Congo in 1960 (later the Democratic Republic of the Congo) when it finally gained its independence from Belgium.
Africa's colonial history mirrors the colonial experiences of many countries around the world. The colonial powers drew the borders for many countries, and many of these same political boundaries remain today (often with disastrous effects). Many colonial residents also speak the language of their colonizers. For example, Portuguese is the official language of Brazil, which Portugal colonized for its mineral resources from 1532–1822.
In many ways, the organization of the European Union (EU) is a reflection of its region. The EU arose out of shared economic and political interests among the member states – it grew from 12 original members in 1992 to 28 when Croatia entered in 2013 and 27 when the United Kingdom withdrew in 2020. Switzerland and Norway were never members, while Turkey is not considered a part of the EU despite its membership application in 1987.
The EU continues to seek to foster a sense of a European identity, but most citizens continue to profess a stronger national connection to their home country. Some worry that being European will dilute their national cause. This is one reason many British citizens chose to leave the EU in 2016. Figure 2.4 shows the members of the European Union (in blue) as of May 2022. (Note that the map in our textbook was published in 2019, before Brexit).
In 2016, 52 percent of voters in the United Kingdom (UK) chose to leave the EU, while 48 percent voted to remain. Those who voiced the need to leave the EU (which politicians and the British press called "Brexit") cited concerns about immigration, resentment toward interference and rule-making from Brussels, and a desire for better border controls. The withdrawal took effect in 2020, but contentious political issues, such as the border between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, which is part of the UK, continue.
The Brexit response reflects the devolutionary forces we explored in Section 2.2, which constitute a response to globalization.
Watch this video which considers the role globalization played in Brexit in 2016. The presenter argues that Brexit is simply one example of the theme that inequality is a frequent by-product of globalization.
How did the geography of Europe contribute to the Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions that advanced Europe's economic development? Note that these events, in turn, affected Europe's geography by irrevocably altering the human and physical landscape.
Read this text, which explains how Europe's geography contributed to (and was affected by) the Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions. Pay attention to the map in Figure 2.10, which shows a core area of industrial development and a pattern of diffusion. Recall from Section 1.2 that diffusion is "the spreading of something from one place to another".
During this period, Europe's population shifted from being primarily rural to being highly concentrated in urban centers or cities. Today, Europe is a highly-urbanized region with low population growth. Consequently, there is an increased demand for low-priced labor, a demand that is being met by increased immigration.
Watch this video to learn how geography explains why the Industrial Revolution originated in northern England. Among other factors, large coal deposits near the surface, its proximity to cities, and relatively flat terrain proved to be critical to Britain's early industrialization.
Much of Europe's inter- and intraregional migration aligns with the concepts of core and periphery and a rural-to-urban shift. Various push and pull factors have contributed to migration, such as employment opportunities, war, environmental hazards, governmental policies, and religious persecution.
The recent influx of migrants into Europe has exacerbated concerns about European identity and perceptions of declining job opportunities for its long-term residents. Many Europeans feel threatened, while others (especially those who live in Europe's diverse urban centers) have welcomed multiculturalism and feelings of connectedness with others in the world.
Several countries have seen the rise of nationalist political parties with anti-immigrant policies and platforms. For example, the French National Rally party has advocated for significant cuts to legal immigration and protections of French cultural identity. These political groups have fueled resentment and violence toward people who they claim have negatively affected European security, culture, and prosperity.
Read this section on historical patterns of migration.
Watch this video, which highlights the plight of Libyan refugees seeking asylum in Italy.
The concept of identity is difficult to define. Establishing a European identity for countries that have fought wars and competed with each other for centuries has been challenging. The EU leaders adopted an anthem (Ode to Joy), a motto (United in Diversity), a flag (with a circle of 12 stars on a blue field), a common currency (the Euro €), and a holiday (Europe Day on May 9th). Citizens of EU member countries who identify as European distinguish themselves from other parts of the world, but their identification with their home country remains strong.
Read this text to learn about some other components of identity.
Globalization and war precipitated the arrival of large numbers of immigrants in Europe. This region is the preferred destination for many fleeing desperate situations, and the war in Syria triggered an international Syrian refugee crisis. In 2015, 1.3 million Syrians sought asylum in Europe. Religion is a strong component of identity, and most Europeans have trended toward secularism. This trend conflicts with the fact that many of Europe's immigrants are Muslim. Some Europeans fear a higher birth rate among immigrant populations will "dilute" their own. Demographic shifts across the continent will likely continue, especially as Russia's recent invasion of Ukraine causes further migration and instability.
Figure 2.7 illustrates a convergence of immigrants in Europe in early 2015. Europe continues to process asylum applications from refugees fleeing human rights abuses in Eritrea, Nigeria, Pakistan, Iraq, and Afghanistan. Europe's geography makes it a more accessible safe haven than other regions such as North America and Oceania.
Europe's geography explains many of its demographic changes. Immigrants from outside Europe and Ukraine have strained Europe's natural resources and infrastructure. Animosity toward Russia has prompted many Europeans to reduce their dependence on Russian fossil fuels. The war has also led many Europeans to search for more stable sources of the wheat and corn they previously purchased from Ukraine. Hopefully, Europe's new, younger immigrant population will promote innovation, entrepreneurship, and opportunity, as they often do.
Read this text for an overview of the impact of immigration on the European region.
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