Middle America is the geographic realm between the United States and South America. It consists of three main regions: the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central America. The Caribbean, the most culturally diverse of the three regions, includes more than 7,000 islands that stretch from the Bahamas to Barbados. The four largest islands of the Caribbean are the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. Hispaniola is comprised of two halves: Haiti in the west and the Dominican Republic in the east. The smaller islands, extending all the way to South America, make up the Lesser Antilles. Trinidad is the farthest south, just off the coast of Venezuela. The Bahamas are closest to the mainland United States.
Central America refers to the seven states south of Mexico: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The Pacific Ocean borders Central America to the west, while the Caribbean Sea is on the east coast. Most of these countries straddle the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. However, Belize only has a shoreline on the Caribbean, and El Salvador is only on the Pacific.
The continent of South America has diverse physical landscapes, from the Andes mountains to the tropical forests of the Amazon basin. Venezuela and Columbia have abundant precious metals and fossil fuels, while the Amazon basin is a source of lumber and, more recently, some of the largest iron-ore mines in the world. The massive plains of Brazil and the rich soils of the Pampas allow for enormous agricultural operations. Even the inhospitable Atacama region in northern Chile holds some of the world's largest copper reserves. The wide variety of climate zones allows for a diverse ecosystem, and the extremes of physical geography have created both barriers and opportunities for those who live there.
In this Unit, we investigate the physical characteristics of Middle and South America. Then, we will explore the human landscape before colonization, including the Mayan, Aztec, and Incan Empires. We identify the effects of European colonialism, especially how Spanish colonizers influenced patterns of land-holding and urban development. This region is highly urbanized, so we learn about the phenomena of primate cities and megacities. Finally, we return to the themes of inequality and globalization within the context of Middle and South America.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.
We begin our examination of Middle and South America by studying some maps of the region.
Study these maps of Middle America so you are familiar with the locations of the countries, rivers, and surrounding water bodies.
Study this map of South America so you are familiar with the locations of the countries, mountain ranges, and rivers.
North, Middle, and South America would comprise a continuous landmass were it not for the Panama Canal, a human-made break in the Isthmus of Panama. Although the physical connection between Central America and South America appears fragile on a map, the cultural connection is strong.
The physical landscape of Middle and South America is varied, ranging from volcanic islands to mountain ranges to tropical rainforests and deserts. It also includes agricultural regions such as the Pampas region of South America, prairie grasslands like Argentina's Patagonia, and the cenotes or sinkholes of the Yucatán peninsula. This region's rivers are some of the largest in the world by discharge volume. They include the Amazon, Orinoco, Rio Negro, and Madeira Rivers.
The climate of this region varies considerably. For example, we often associate South America with the tropical Amazon Rainforest. However, most of the continent does not straddle the Equator. Because the South American continent extends from 12° N to 54°S, its climate varies and includes tropical, temperate, arid, cold, and polar climates. Furthermore, the local topography means there are variations within those climate types.
Given the vast expanse of Middle and South America, it is not surprising that the physical geography of the region is varied. Here are some features.
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Atacama Desert Altiplano Altitudinal Zonation: – Tierra Caliente – Tierra Templada – Tierra Fria – Tierra Helada – Tierra Nevada Amazon Basin, Amazon River, Amazon Forest Archipelago The Caribbean Sea El Niño- Southern Oscillation (ENSO) Isthmus of Panama Panama Canal Lake Nicaragua |
Greater Antilles: – Cayman Islands – Cuba – Jamaica – Hispaniola (Haiti, Dominican Republic) – Puerto Rico The Lesser Antilles: – The Bahamas – Leeward and Windward Islands – Leeward Antilles Mountain Ranges: – Andes Mountains – Sierra Madre Occidental – Sierra Madre Oriental – Sierra Madre del Sur |
Patagonia Oceans: – Atlantic Ocean (North Atlantic) – Pacific Ocean (East Pacific) Tectonic Activity: – Earthquakes – Volcanoes Tectonic Plates: – Caribbean – Cocos – Nazca – North American – South American Tropical Storms: – Hurricane |
Read this text for more on the physical geography of the region. Pay attention to Figure 5.6, a map of the Amazon Basin.
The Panama Canal is a critical connection between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. While its initial construction was deadly, the canal saves ships from having to travel around the southernmost tip of South America, Cape Horn, through the Drake Passage or the Strait of Magellan, or north through the Arctic Archipelago and the Bering Strait.
See the map in Figure 5.1, which indicates the location of the Panama Canal between the Caribbean Sea (to the north) and the North Pacific Ocean (to the south), with the canal at the top center. It spans the distance between Colón and Panama City.
Figure 5.2 provides topographic and profile perspectives. Although the canal has been expanded since this map was created, it provides an effective visualization of the challenges the topography posed.
Watch this video for an idea of what it is like to traverse the Panama Canal.
Although many people associate the Amazon River Basin with Brazil, its area covers more than a third of South America, including Peru and Ecuador to the west, Bolivia to the south, and Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Suriname to the north.
The Amazon River drains this vast region, which covers more than 35 percent of the continent. Its headwaters are in the Andes mountains to the west at about 6.635 m. It travels about 6,400 km before it empties into the Atlantic Ocean to the east, near the port city of Belém.
The Amazon accounts for 20 percent of the total water the world's rivers carry to oceans. A river's drainage basin is the land where precipitation collects and drains off, feeding the flow of the river and its tributaries. Drainage basins are separated by areas of higher elevation, as shown in Figure 5.3.
Watch this video for a visualization of the transport of dust across the Atlantic.
The Amazon River Basin is home to the Amazon Rainforest, a tropical rainforest. The location of the Amazon Rainforest roughly corresponds to the dark blue zone shown in Figure 5.4, straddling the Equator. Given its proximity to the Equator, it is not surprising that it is a tropical rainforest with hot, humid conditions and an average annual rainfall that ranges from 1.5 to 3 m.
The warm, equatorial waters of the Atlantic Ocean are the source of this moisture-laden air which is drawn inland, making its way all the way to the Andes Mountains in the west. Interestingly, there is a connection between the Amazon Rainforest and the Sahara Desert in northern Africa. Some of the dust from the Sahara is blown west and deposited in the Amazon, where it fertilizes plant life.
The size and biodiversity of the Amazon River Basin play a critical role in global climate and hydrology. Deforestation – which provides timber and land for cattle ranching and mining activities – has taken a toll on the physical and human landscapes. While they are frequently ignored, the indigenous populations that rely on the Amazon River Basin for their survival serve as stewards to protect it. These communities, which descend from those who settled in the region 30,000 to 40,000 years ago, are in the best position to teach others how best to preserve this vast, unique area.
Watch this video to learn about the connection between the Amazon rainforest and the Yawanawá indigenous people who live in its western reaches.
The Waimiri-Atroari, Munduruku, Yanomami people, and others have all fought to preserve the Amazon River Basin. Unfortunately, their populations are shrinking, as are the size of their homelands.
Read this article to learn what indigenous people are doing to prevent the loss of their native lands despite the Brazilian government's efforts to increase infrastructure development in the Amazon.
The Atacama Desert (shown in yellow in Figure 5.5) is west of the Andes, primarily in northern Chile. Some of the outlying arid regions (shown in orange in Figure 5.5) extend into Peru and Bolivia. No rain has fallen in some parts of the Atacama in recorded history, making this area the driest place on Earth outside Antarctica. Because there are mineral resources in the desert, including copper and nitrates, there is some human activity there. Indeed, mining in the Atacama has proven to be quite lucrative.
The Atacama Desert formed in this area due to several factors. The Andes Mountains created a rain shadow desert that prevents the warm moist tropical air (brought by the tradewinds) from reaching the west coast. (Remember that the reverse is true on North America's west coast, see Figure 4.4 in Section 4.1.) The Atacama Desert is on the leeward, not the windward, side of the Andes at these latitudes. At higher latitudes, this pattern reverses, which creates the prairie grassland of Patagonia in southern Argentina.
A cold ocean current along the west coast of South America lowers the air temperature, so little moisture accumulates. Once this air blows onshore, there is no potential for precipitation. At this latitude, a belt of high atmospheric pressure makes it difficult for air to rise and suppresses the formation of clouds. This creates a zone of low precipitation, which contributes to the already-dry conditions of the Atacama Desert.
Watch this video for a tour of the Atacama Desert with views of its dunes, salt lakes, flats, hot springs, geysers, flora, and fauna. In addition to these natural landscapes, the video includes footage of the Chuquicamata open-pit copper mine.
Like the west coast of North America, the west coasts of Middle America and South America coincide with active plate boundaries. The west coast of this region is tectonically active.
The convergence of the Nazca Plate and the South American Plate (see Figure 5.12) explains the presence of the Andes Mountains along South America's west coast and why earthquakes are frequent in the region. The length of the arrows on the map indicates the speed the plate is moving. For example, the Nazca plate is moving quickly (80 to 100 mm per year) compared to many other plates.
In addition to earthquakes and volcanoes, Middle America and northern South America are also prone to hurricanes, which are common in North America and other locations around the world (see Figure 5.13).
Note that hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons are all types of tropical storms. The different names refer to their location: hurricanes form over the North Atlantic and Northeast Pacific Ocean, cyclones form over the South Pacific and the Indian Ocean, and typhoons form over the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Thus, the tropical storms that strike China are typhoons, those in Mexico are hurricanes, and those in Madagascar are cyclones.
The global pattern of tropical storms is distinct. Most of these storms form between 5° and 20° north and south of the Equator because the water in these areas is warmer than 26° C. The water becomes too cold for them to form as the distance increases beyond 20° north and south. El Niño can contribute to stronger storm activity in the eastern Pacific Ocean, which affects the west coast of Middle America.
Watch this video on how hurricanes form.
Let's look at an example from 2005. In Figure 5.16, we see the waters off the coasts of Middle America are the strengthening zone for the hurricanes that occur in the North Atlantic. Some of these 2005 hurricanes made landfall in Middle America, including Haiti, Cuba, Mexico, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Those that did not make landfall would still have had a tremendous impact on coastal areas in the form of strong winds and storm surge flooding. Hurricanes pose a deadly hazard that affects millions of people in Middle America.
Middle America is one of the world's ancient cultural hearths due to the contributions of the Maya and Aztec civilizations. As in North America, the European colonists profoundly affected the indigenous populations. While the rimland was accessible to European ships, the mainland's interior remained more isolated. These locations determined the style of agriculture, type of crops, and labor sources.
Read this text on the rise and fall of the indigenous empires in Middle America and the role the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, and Portuguese played in changing human and physical geography.
The Amerindians populated the Caribbean Islands before the Europeans arrived in 1492. These indigenous populations included the Taino, Kalinago, Ciguayo, Macoris, and Guanahatabey, among others. Figure 5.18 illustrates some of the languages spoken during Pre-Colombian times. The Taino were the first indigenous group Columbus encountered when he landed in the Bahamas. Like Mexico and Central America, some of these indigenous people remain in places like the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and the Leeward Islands. The indigenous peoples of the Caribbean likely traveled there from northern South America.
The Amerindians populated the Caribbean Islands before the Europeans arrived in 1492. These indigenous populations included the Taino, Kalinago, Ciguayo, Macoris, and Guanahatabey, among others.
Figure 5.18 illustrates some of the languages spoken during Pre-Colombian times. The Taino were the first indigenous group Columbus encountered when he landed in the Bahamas. Like Mexico and Central America, some of these indigenous people remain in places like the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and the Leeward Islands. The indigenous peoples of the Caribbean likely traveled there from northern South America.
The Rimland of Middle America had a thriving trade network that dates back thousands of years before the European colonists arrived. Watch this video on the Pre-Colonial Caribbean to learn more about the indigenous people from the Mainland who developed these networks and formed communities throughout the Rimland.
Read this article for more on the timing and settlement patterns of these pre-Colombian communities.
The thematic map in Figure 5.19 shows the percentage of indigenous peoples living in the Americas. It does not include mixed-race populations, such as the mestizo. We can see that southern Mexico (including the Yucatan Peninsula) and Guatemala have a high percentage of indigenous people compared to the rest of the mainland. In the rimland, percentages are low, but it is important to note that "no data" is included for the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, the Bahamas, and some of the Leeward Islands. Areas with high percentages of indigenous people coincide with the locations of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca Empires.
Spain and Portugal colonized all of South America except for the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana). Spain focused on South America's west coast, which borders present-day Colombia, because they had already colonized Middle America.
See Figure 5.20. Francisco Pizzaro, a Spanish conquistador stationed in Panama, began colonizing South America after he landed in Peru in 1531 to search for gold and silver. Portuguese colonists sailed directly to South America from Portugal and seized land on the east coast of Brazil to expand their empire.
Since the Spanish and Portuguese penetrated South America's interior from opposite directions, they eventually claimed the same territory. They turned to the Catholic church to resolve their dispute. The Tordesillas Line of 1494 is the boundary they established between their new acquisitions. The British, Dutch, and French colonized the Guianas just as they had colonized the rimland of Middle America. French Guiana is the only remaining colony on the continent of South America.
Several other indigenous groups lived in South America in addition to the Incas. Historians estimate that 2,000 different tribes inhabited the area that is now Brazil before Europeans arrived. Three hundred indigenous groups remain in Venezuela.
Approximately 10% of Chile's 2012 population considers itself indigenous. The Mapuche account for a majority of this 10%, although at least 15 other indigenous groups live in Chile. The varied physical geography, in the form of mountains, rivers, deserts, and forests, did much to foster the development of so many different groups.
Although most of the countries of Middle and South America are now sovereign states, the effects of colonization remain. In the next section, we see a similar pattern of urban development across this region which features extraordinarily large cities characterized by numerous slums.
Read this text for more on the Inca Empire and the role the Spanish, French, English, Dutch, and Portuguese played in changing South America's human and physical geography.
The appalling living conditions enslaved people were forced to endure, and the ideas of the American and French Revolutions inspired the independence movements that led to decolonization in Middle and South America. The enslaved people of the French colony Saint Domingue were the first to revolt. Watch this video to learn more about their revolution.
As shown in Figure 5.21, the Inca Empire extended along the Andes Mountains from the present-day countries of Colombia in the north, through Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, to Chile and Argentina in the south. It was the largest pre-Colombian empire in the Americas.
There are several familiar placenames in Figure 5.21:
In Tenochtitlán, the capital city of the Aztec empire, temples, palaces, and public buildings dominated the city center while economic activities occurred on the periphery. The commoners in Aztec society lived on the urban periphery because many were engaged in agriculture.
When the Spanish colonized Middle and South America, their model left members of the working class on the periphery but placed economic activities in the city centers.
Here are some common elements of this model which still exist in many Middle and South American cities.
Read this section for more on the evolution of these cities since colonization.
Rural-to-urban migration has fueled the rapid growth of cities in Middle and South America. Housing construction typically fails to keep pace with the influx of newcomers who live in makeshift dwellings on the city fringes. The living conditions in these areas are often deplorable and can lead to urban unrest.
Read this article to learn about some of the cities where this unrest has occurred. The next section highlights income inequality, a problem that is particularly acute in this region where rapid urbanization has led to uneven development and the formation of primate cities. In these cases, the city advances, but the periphery is lagging. This imbalance intensifies income inequality.
This section presents the recurring theme of income inequality in Middle and South America. Figure 4.13 from Unit 4 shows that Middle and South American countries share a high Gini coefficient with the United States. In some countries, such as Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Barbados, it is even higher.
Read this text which observes that while income inequality has recently decreased across the region, it continues to be a challenge with many long-term repercussions. Despite its decline, income inequality in Middle and South America remains higher than in most parts of the world.
Read this article to learn why income inequality tells a cautionary tale for other regions. The author cites the following contributing factors to social and political unrest in Middle and South America:
Globalization has exacerbated this situation. The Russian oligarchs are not the only members of the wealthy elite who have transferred their money to offshore accounts. The remaining population in Middle and South America has felt left behind with little opportunity to advance. Those who are able to leave the region to seek a better life elsewhere often do.
Middle America is well-connected to the region of North America. In July 2020, Mexico joined the United States, Mexico, Canada Agreement (USMCA), the successor to the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). USMCA is a free trade agreement among the three countries. It facilitates increased cross-border trade and addresses agricultural produce, manufactured products, labor conditions, digital trade, and other provisions.
Without question, the United States is Mexico's biggest trading partner. Canada is a distant second. Roughly 78 percent of Mexico's exports go to the United States, while only three percent go to Canada. USMCA is positive from Mexico's perspective, although the treaty requires Mexico to meet certain labor standards, such as a minimum wage requirement in the automotive industry. These labor provisions will marginally improve income inequality in Mexico. However, some are concerned the increased labor costs in the USMCA-related segment of Mexico's economy will impede aggregate productivity.
Brazil and Mexico are the largest economies in Middle and South America in terms of gross domestic product (GDP). They are 12th and 15th, respectively, from a global perspective. Compared to the regions we have discussed so far, Middle and South America trails North America but is comparable to Russia and parts of Europe. See Figure 4.16 in Unit 4 to see the countries of Middle and South America in a global economic context.
Despite Brazil and Mexico's relative GDP success, Finlayson identifies five challenges these and other countries in the region face: 1. outmigration leading to brain drain, 2. institutional corruption, 3. environmental damage, 4. dependence on offshore banking, and 5. dependence on remittances. Read this text to learn about other effects of globalization throughout the region.
A lucrative and thriving drug trade continues to plague this region primarily due to its proximity to drug markets in the United States. Although the United States receives illegal drugs from other places, most drugs cross the Mexican border to reach the U.S. marketplace.
Watch this video which explains why the drug trade continues to be a violent and debilitating challenge for the Mexican people and government. The speaker identifies several familiar themes and contributing factors to the success of drug cartels, including income inequality and geography.
There is a feeling among many Mexicans (real and perceived) that government institutions have failed them and they are being left behind. In some cases, organized drug cartels fill the void by providing protection and jobs. Although this talk was presented in 2013, its message still resonates.
Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.