By the early 20th century, competition among the European states over colonial resources began to affect the cohesion of the international community. A growing arms race between Great Britain and Germany raised concerns about European stability. In response, European nations began making secret military alliances for mutual protection in the event of war.
Tensions finally came to a head in the summer of 1914 when Serbian terrorists assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. Germany and Austria-Hungary threatened to invade Serbia, but Russia elected to protect the small state. As a result, these nations declared war on each other, and treaty alliances forced France and Great Britain to join the conflict. By the end of World War I in November 1918, the fighting had consumed more than eight million lives and was the most deadly and destructive conflict in world history.
In this unit, we examine the origins of World War I and why it spread so rapidly worldwide. We evaluate the role the colonies played in the conflict, how European states tried to maintain their colonial possessions with post-war peace agreements, and how the colonized peoples began challenging European rule.
Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.
Between 1815 and 1914, Europe seemed to enjoy a period of peace. While there were smaller conflicts like the Crimean War and the wars that unified Germany, no conflicts dragged the whole continent into fighting. However, the peace was fragile. States still engaged in conflicts with each other, and their rivalries prompted them to form alliances with other states. The countries felt the need to maintain the existing power balance, fearing that anybody's advantage might disadvantage someone else. Over time, this system became untenable.
Read this text on the political conditions in Europe during the early 20th century, the nature of its political alliances, and how the colonies destabilized the balance of power.
Planning proved to be an inadvertent catalyst of the war. Trains allowed countries to move troops quickly with astonishing precision. It was possible to calculate how quickly an opponent could attack, which meant you had to respond quickly to defend yourself. This put pressure on the diplomatic process since a delay could allow your opponent to obtain an advantage. Read more here about France and Germany's war plans.
The slow collapse of the Ottoman Empire's European possessions upset Europe's balance of power. Newly independent states created instability: some tried to expand their power in the Balkans, while others tried to chart their own course. Read this text on the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, rising nationalism among minority ethnic groups, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand on June 28, 1914, and the first few months of World War I.
Many European armies were accustomed to fighting colonial wars against foes with inferior weaponry and had not experienced fully mechanized war. The result was a slaughter on all sides and a stalemate since neither side had an immediate or obvious advantage over the other. Societies became mobilized to produce almost exclusively for the war effort, leading to dramatic changes at home.
Read this text on how new technologies affected combat in World War I, the experience of the average soldier, the role of colonial troops, and how racism affected the actions of the major powers.
While machine guns, accurate rifles, and precise artillery were not new, they were nevertheless devastating. Seeking to break the stalemate, each side tried to develop new weapons that would allow them to win the war. Read about them here.
Read this text on the societal transformations that occurred in the countries that fought in World War I, the expanding role of women in the workforce, and the events that led to the Irish Rising in 1916.
Watch this video on Southeast Asia during World War I. It was a complicated place in 1914 because the British, French, American, Dutch, and Japanese empires claimed much of the region. It was also home to many Chinese people and Muslims, who had broad transnational interests.
Read this source to learn more about the United States and World War I. What was the role of the United States during the conflict?
The entry of the United States into the war ultimately tipped the balance in favor of the Allies. Even with Russia's surrender, Germany could not move troops quickly enough to defeat France, and years of blockade had taken their toll on the German homefront. Facing defeat and revolution at home, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire surrendered. But now came the more difficult task of making a lasting peace.
Read this text on challenges to the tsarist autocracy in Russia at the beginning of World War I, the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, and the end of World War I.
America's entry into the war was controversial because many believed the conflict was a European problem. President Wilson recognized the American people wanted to fight for something more than supporting imperial ambitions. In 1918, he unveiled his conditions and terms for ending the war, which became known as the Fourteen Points. Read this primary source document.
The Paris Peace Conference in 1919 generated tremendous hopes for the future on all sides. Read this text to learn more about the treaties that emerged from World War I and what happened to the defeated empires.
Watch this video. Before 1914, most of the Middle East was divided between the Ottoman and British empires, two powers on opposing sides of World War I. The war's victors redrew the borders of the countries of the Middle East, essentially wiping the Ottoman Empire off the map, laying the foundations for several modern nation-states and conflicts that persist in the region today.
The collapse of Russia's monarchy in March of 1917 briefly led to a democratic government, but one that was determined to continue the war. When the stalemate persisted and the breakdown in the Russian economy worsened, a new revolution in November of 1917 brought the Bolsheviks to power. The Bolsheviks were communists who sought a dramatic reorganization of Russian society.
Read the text on the rising discontent of the Russian people and why they rose in revolution.
Watch this lecture, where John Merriman discusses the causes of the Russian Revolution of October 1917. He begins by talking about the failure of the Tsarist regime of Nicholas II (1868–1918) and focuses on how the Bolsheviks gained political control in the Russian Revolution (1917–1923).
Read this summary of the Russian Revolution and the events leading up to it to learn why it had such a strong appeal.
The communist belief in the inherent equality of the sexes was liberating to women who participated in the revolution and civil war. Reforms in literacy and education promoted greater opportunities for women. Read this article to explore how the Russian Revolution impacted the role of women in Russian society.
This declaration, published in January 1918, outlines the key rights to be obtained in the new Soviet state. Compare it with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, the English Bill of Rights, and the U.S. Bill of Rights. What common themes and values do you notice? What is unique about this document compared to earlier revolutionary declarations?
Take this assessment to see how well you understood this unit.