The word ethics comes from the Greek word ethos, which means custom or habit. Ethics describes the branch of philosophy that is concerned with morality, which is derived from the Latin word moralis, meaning custom. Many use ethics synonymously with morality, values, and moral philosophy.
The study of ethics reflects a systematic examination of our attitudes and beliefs about how people should treat others and act as members of their community. Today's philosophers and scholars continue to debate many of the same questions that preoccupied ancient ethical thinkers. Philosophers often incorporate the study of ethics within larger philosophical systems that include theories of knowledge, reality, aesthetics (the branch of philosophy that relates to the principles of beauty and art), and politics.
Prescriptive or normative ethics tell us how to act and be. This type of ethical reasoning is prescriptive and practical. It provides practical guides or norms by means of which we know how to act; it tells us what is right and wrong. Ethics is a prescriptive study insofar as we don't just do it as a matter of course. If we did, we wouldn't ask what we ought or should do. Normative questions include: "Is it ever ethical for me to lie?" and, "Do I have a duty to help the poor and those less fortunate than me?"
Metaethics is the study of morality and moral judgments. Metaethicists use descriptive and theoretical approaches to understanding the commitments and assumptions that underlie our thinking about morality and moral actions. In short, metaethics is concerned with uncovering the origin and nature of moral principles, moral attitudes, moral judgments, and moral properties. That is, metaethics is concerned with what it means to say that we should or ought to act the way a normative theory tells us we should.
Applied ethics examines controversial issues. For example, applied ethics applies normative and metaethical concepts to issues such as abortion, infanticide, euthanasia, stem-cell research, environmental issues, capital punishment, same-sex marriage, drug legalization, discrimination, and specific rights, such as animal rights.
Note that we will discuss different theories about ethics in the study guide that follows, including virtue ethics, social contract theory, deontology, and utilitarianism.
To review, see Ethical Systems.
Philosophers define ethical concepts, such as justice, differently. For example, Plato (c. 423–348 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC), the Greek philosophers, defined justice as following the laws of the state, provided the city is structured in a way that creates "just" laws.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1689), the English philosopher who wrote about social contract theory, defined justice as acting in a way that is within your power. Hobbes claimed that political leaders get to define what justice means, as long as they are strong or powerful enough to get away with it.
Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–1968), was an American Baptist minister and political activist, who promoted equal rights for African Americans during the civil rights movement from 1954 to 1968. He was assassinated in 1968 and is remembered for his ability to mobilize the American people to support civil rights, powerful speeches, and actions in favor of rights for all races. Martin Luther King, Jr. advocated for change in peaceful, non-violent ways. One of his most influential writings is his Letter from the Birmingham City Jail.
Michael Sandel discusses how the shipmates Dudley and Stephens raised questions about whether it is ethical to change our moral principles or norms in cases of extreme need or necessity. Which type of ethics should philosophers use to answer this type of question? Are some people better equipped to answer questions about ethical dilemmas than others?
To review, see:
Ethical dilemmas are questions about what we should do in particular situations. Philosophers look for general principles about how we should make these decisions. For example, "Do not do anything that will harm other people". But what about situations where we only have two bad options and the best action may involve harming another person. Situations, such as war and the death penalty, raise questions about whether we should kill someone, given our options.
Ethics and philosophy seek to understand what principles are best for handling difficult situations and the implications of those principles. No matter how technical or abstract these disciplines may seem, they always relate questions about what we should do in a particular situation.
Plato and Aristotle, the Greek philosophers, examined what it means to live virtuously, or in ways that will promote human flourishing (eudaimonia) or living a good life. These thinkers considered the most important virtues to be wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. In the same manner, cultivating one's character includes learning to avoid vices, such as ignorance, cowardice (or brashness), intemperance, and injustice. Their theories about virtue focus on the development and state of one's character. So, rather than learn moral rules, the virtue theorist focuses on learning to become a moral person, to develop a virtuous character.
To review, see Major Ethical Systems, Virtue Ethics, and Letter from the Birmingham City Jail.
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), the English philosopher, was the first major philosopher to espouse the principle of utility and utilitarianism. He examined the moral consequences of our actions in addition to the intrinsic quality of the act. Bentham believed that the right thing to do, individually and collectively, is to maximize the balance of pleasure over pain, and happiness over suffering, to promote the greatest good for the greatest number. He stated that it is preferable to act in ways that uphold "the greatest benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness ... to prevent the happening of mischief, pain, evil, or unhappiness".
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), also an English philosopher, and Jeremy Bentham were both utilitarians, but they had different ideas about the specifics of utilitarianism. We could describe Bentham as a hedonistic utilitarian, and John Stuart Mill as an idealistic utilitarian because Mill believed some pleasures are higher than others. In Chapter 2 of Utilitarianism, Mill describes a "difference of quality in pleasures".
In addition to the readings about utilitarianism in the section on Jeremy Bentham, review the following materials on John Stuart Mill. While Mill and Bentham did not use the following terms themselves, they may help you understand how we evaluate different pleasures. Consider these exercises as a guide to some important terminology.
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the Italian priest and theologian, believed that natural law and eternal law (which are prescribed by God) go hand-in-hand.
Aquinas writes in an unfamiliar format so you need to read carefully. First, he lays out the objections to his own beliefs. So, the first text you read is the opposite of what Aquinas believes (see the headings: Objection 1, 2, and 3). Next, he claims, "on the contrary", where he begins to present his argument against these objections, as if he is saying, "they have got it all wrong!" Finally, he responds to each objection one by one and offers his opinion on each issue.
Martin Luther King Jr.'s Letter from a Birmingham City Jail, which we introduced in 1b., above, is one of his most widely circulated and influential writings.
To review, see:
Consequentialism is an umbrella term that refers to several ethical theories that evaluate moral principles according to their consequences.
Utilitarianism is one specific form of consequentialism or consequentialist theory. Review utilitarianism and consequentialism in the sections about their founders, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, in learning outcome 1d. above.
Deontology, or ethical theories based on duty, focuses on our obligations. Derived from the Greek word, deon, duty dictates what we ought to do. Deontological ethical theories are focused on determining the principles we use to define our duties. We classify deontological ethical theories as non-consequentialist. That's because the morality of an action, in a deontological theory, is not determined by the consequences of that action, but whether or not the action was performed for the sake of duty.
John Rawls (1921–2002), the American moral and political philosopher, coined the theory of reflective equilibrium which suggests we should continually re-evaluate our moral principles, against our judgments and intuitions, to ensure our entire moral system is consistent.
Many associate Rawls' philosophy with Immanuel Kant, because Rawls also argued that we should follow certain rules absolutely, out of a sense of duty, just because they are right. Like Kant, Rawls believed we have a duty and obligation to follow these rules and principles.
To review, see Deontology, Rawls' Theory of Justice, and Reflective Equilibrium.
In his Letter from a Birmingham City Jail, Martin Luther King, Jr. says an oppressor never voluntarily gives freedom to the person or people they oppress. For this reason, King creates a plan for demanding freedom. He says the oppressed have to demand freedom for themselves, or it will never be granted. King proposes a four-step program the oppressed can use to make their demands heard.
To review, see Letter from Birmingham City Jail and Utilitarianism: The Greater Good.